Remembrance Day

Today is a Remembrance Day in Libya in honor of the thousands of Libyans deported to Italian dreary islands during the Fascist era for their role in the Resistance at the time. As Grazziani, the Italian well-known General of the time, said that he had only three options for Libyans not accepting Rome’s supremacy, and these are; the gallows, the concentration camps or the boat for the islands. Thousands were deported and most of them perished away from home in a hostile land, the remainders who came back bore scars of sufferance for the rest of their lives.
Meantime, Benghazi had its own sad gloomy day, as the worst sand storm of the season raged in the area, leaving the streets empty and dusted.

BEDOUINS AND MODERN MILITARY WARFARE

From the Net:
The following is quoted from an anthropological study of relations between nomads and sedentary people undertaken In 1973 by Dr Asad (anthropology Professor at University of Hull, England).
Dr Asad wrote on Bedouins' military power in history and if it could still be taken seriously in modern times.

Based on the Libyan-Italian case, he concluded that it cannot! (!!!)

(For an example the writer mentions General Graziani, who fought Libyan guerrillas all over Cyrenaica for about a whole decade.)

Asad summarizes Fascists military phases in the war as following:
(1) attempt to subdue by regular army units, (2) use of airplanes and jeeps, then finally and most destructive was (3) massive concentration camps for entire population of Cyrenaica.

Here's how the second phase was done:
"The Italians adopted the new tactics of making surprise raids by mechanized units on the Bedouin encampments, slaughtering man and beast indiscriminately, and destroying the grain stores, In these raids, on what in a noncolonial war would be regarded as the civilian population, the purpose was to kill as many of the Bedouin as possible, striking terror into the hearts of shepherd folk of Cyrenaica. When the rains came and mechanized transport could no longer be used, the camps were bombed and machine-gunned from the air."

Asad then describes later stages and how it got hysterically bad because of too much resistance:
"Graziani was determined to wrest the initiative from the guerrillas. He reorganized his forces for the last round in the 'guerra senza quartiere' into small mobile patrols to keep the whole of the [desert] country under surveillance and to attack the enemy wherever they met him, giving him no rest. To prevent the guerrillas from obtaining supplies and reinforcements from the civilian population he disarmed the tribesmen, confiscating from them thousands of rifles and millions of rounds of ammunition, and made possession of arms a capital offence. He instituted the 'tribunale volante,' a military court flown from point to point to try, and execute all who had dealings of any kind with the guerrillas. He reduced the Libyan units by more than two-thirds, with the intention of disbanding them altogether later. In the meanwhile he distributed among the 750 Libyans retained in service rifles of a different caliber from rifles in Patriot hands to prevent leakage of ammunition. At the same time he closed the Sanusiya lodges, confiscated their estates, and exiled their Sheikhs to the Island of Istica. He also much improved the communications of the colony, thereby easing his supply problem and economizing man-power.
"It may be doubted whether all these measures would have been effective if he had not also started his immense concentration camps for the entire tribal population of Cyrenaica, about whose feelings the General had no illusions. In taking this step the Italians were doing no more than others had done before them and have done after them, for an army fighting guerrillas is fighting an entire population. The first concentration camps of January 1930 were found to be too near the area of military operations, for the prisoners, in spite of close surveillance, still managed to supply the guerrillas with some of their requirements; so most of the Bedouin were removed to the barqa al-baida and the Sirtica. In this bleak country were herded in the smallest camps possible 80,000 men, women and children, and 600,000 beasts in the summer of 1930. Hunger, disease, and broken hearts took a heavy toll of the imprisoned population. Bedouin die in a cage. Loss of livestock was also great, for the beasts had insufficient grazing near the camps on which to support life, and the herds, already decimated in the fighting, almost wiped out by the camps.
"The guerrillas thus found themselves cut off from local sources of supply and forced more and more to rely on Egypt for the bare necessities of life and of war. For years a considerable part of their supplies had come from there, paid for by Bedouin produce, money raised by customs charges, and funds collected throughout the Arab and Muslim world. Supplies came through the port of al-Sallum, and the Egyptian Frontiers Administration must have closed its eyes to supplies going into Cyrenaica as tightly as to refugees going out of it, The Marmarica had been declared by [Graziani] a military zone, its people being removed to concentration camps, and the closed frontier was patrolled by armoured cars and planes with instructions to destroy any caravans they spotted, but, in spite of these precautions, supplies continued to reach the Patriots. Graziani therefore decided to run a line of barbed-wire entanglements from the sea to Jaghbub and into the dunes to the south of it, a distance of over 300 km. The work was completed early in September 1931 and control along the wire was operated through fortified posts, a telephone system, and aviation camps."

Link: http://saharasafaris.org/hassaneinbey/egyptandorient.htm

The Special Flying Courts

Prelude: Following the Italian defeat at the Battle of Al Hani-Sciara Al Shutt of Tripoli in October, 1911. and to give legality to the atrocities that followed, the Italian high command formed a walking court that convened any where in the streets of Tripoli and judged Libyans that were found always guilty and their punishment was death by the firing squad. British military journalist Francis McCullagh, in his book “Italy’s War for a Desert” gave a vivid account of this Italian method of bringing civilization to Libyans at the time.

A Street Court: Process, Verdict and Execution

On 11th January , 1930, General Graziani was in Umm Al Araneb in Fezzan. He was bringing Pax Romana to the region when he received Marshal Padoglio’s cable informing him that he was appointed Deputy General Governor of Cyrenaica, that he was to finish his current assignment and to report promptly to the High Command in Rome to receive his instructions. In Rome, the Duche’s instructions were clear and precise; to crush the national revolt in Cyrenaica at whatever cost and by all means conceivable.
On 27th March, 1930 the General arrived by boat to Benghazi, he reorganized his forces and initiated his campaign of “Guerra Senza Quartiere”. One of the ruthless methods of this Guerra was the revival of the Street Court, which was upgraded to a ‘Flying Court’. An aircraft was assigned to the Special Flying Court and its job was defined as follows: 1) Enforcement of Law strongly. 2) Prompt execution of verdicts. 3) Executions were to take place in lieu of crime. 4) Court to convene outdoors and must be attended by local population. 5) Total Control and Maximum Exposure must be maintained all times.
The court used all available transportation means including aircraft, and it became known as the Flying Court. General Graziani, in his book ‘Pacified Cyrenaica – chapter 3’ wrote of an example of this court sessions.
Quote …
“On 14th June, 1930, the Flying Court convened in Shahat to judge the case of citizen Hamad Bu AbduRabbah ElDerssi حامد بو عبد ربه الدرسى in the general square of high treason. The accused was chief of a branch of Derssa Tribe and he was respected by our authorities. However, according to army intelligence reports he was a collaborator with the rebels. He provided them with arms and supplies, and his tribe camp offered refuge to rebel fighters. He was found guilty and executed on the spot by the firing squad in Shahat general square in front of members of his tribe.”
Unquote ..
According to the figures given in this book, the court looked up a number of 448 cases of accused Libyans, out of these the court gave 250 verdicts of capital punishment against 198 verdicts of imprisonment and exile to the Italian tiny islands. In the Fascist eyes the concept of justice was like its emblem of ‘Governorship and Military Justice, and under their Glory, the State ruled this land by Fascist and Roman Principles’

Graziani’s Hadrian's Wall in the Libyan Desert

As the Fascists became more hysterical in their attempts to bring Cyrenaica down to total submission and to cut off all outside support for Omar Mukhtar free fighters, it was decided by General Graziani to build an artificial fortified barrier on the Egyptian borders.
This barrier of barbed wires was over 270 km long starting from Assalumm on the coast to the Deep South, south of Jaghbub, and it was 10 meters wide and 1.5 meter high. The barrier crossed the hills and valleys of Mermarica until it reached the high hills of the Libyan Desert.
The barrier consisted of three centers for guards and six extra guards’ posts and 3 airstrips and an airbase suitable for 4 military aircrafts. The barrier was also provided by a telephone line for instant communications.
The barrier was constructed by an Italian company for public works using 2500 Libyans as a slave labor working in a very savage hot environment and temperature rising up to the 40’s D.C. in the shade as an average for a period of six months. There were 1200 armed soldiers overseeing the works.

According to Gen. Graziani book ‘Cyrenaica Pacified”, the project used the following materials:
- 263,343,000 meters of barbed wires.
- 269,628,000 iron bars.
- 27,000 tons of cement.
- 18,225 tons of water.
- 200 trucks were assigned for land transportation.
- 18 ships were assigned for maritime transportation.
- The Financial Cost reached 17,737,173.80 Lira.
At the end of the project Gen. Graziani thanked all “all foremen and workers who supervised the works, and the services of military trucks and the the military police”. For all those GG presented his appreciation and admiration.

FASCIST CONCENTRATION CAMPS

From the Net:
http://www.libyana.org/

"In response to the successful campaigns by Sheikh Omar Al-mukhtar, the Fascists embarked on a gruesome and brutal tactic in their war of annihilation against the Libyan population: the use of concentration camps. Entire tribes (primarily Bedouins from Aljabil Al-akhdhar) were forced into concentration camps in desert areas hundreds of miles away from their homes. The objective was three fold: (1) flush these people out of their mountainous strongholds where it was hard to subdue them, (2) cut off the economic and social support of the mujahdeen led by Almukhtar and (3) prevent more men from joining the armed struggle.
Numerous concentration camps were setup in addition to many other locations used as gathering points. There were four major concentration camps:Al-agaila, Al-brega, Al-magroon and Sloog.
Al-agaila is a desert area on the gulf of Sidra (Sirte) about 300 km west of Benghazi. This camp was the worst of the concentration camps due to the harsh conditions of the area (bad water, extreme heat) and was characterized by the extreme brutality of the Italians. Various torture and beating techniques were employed, including (a) men and women were whipped (the traditional 1000 whips) and salt water was poured on their bodies , (b) men and women were tied to poles in the desert sun from their hands (without their feet touching the ground). The men and women were also made to move sand/dirt form one place to another all day for the sole purpose of tiring, abusing and mentally torturing them. Of course, all these nice activities were accompanied by a full slate of kicking and degrading insults. Some men were also used to do other forms of labor, like loading and off loading of Italian ships. The punishments added up and intensified every time Sheikh Omar Almukhtar outsmarted, out-maneuvered and beat the Italian army in Berqa.
The number of people forced into these major concentration camps reached 125,000, two thirds of which (i.e. about 90,000) perished at these camps! The remaining survivors were transported to other camps in miserable conditions suffering from chronic disabilities and debilitating diseases.
Furthermore, the Fascists figured that by impoverishing these bedouin people they can force them into submission and hence they systematically destroyed the Bedouin's livestock (their livelihood): thousands of heads of sheep, goats, horses, cows and camels were confiscated. Untold number were burned in Wadi Al-koof, many perished with their owners and many were shipped to Italy. The Colonialists, like what they have done previously in Triploitana, also introduced many land schemes whereby the best fertile land was appropriated from its rightful owners."

Banco di Roma and 'Penetrazione Pacifica' of Tripolitania

Like Today, one hundred years ago, Rajab Pasha, Ottoman Governor of Libya, was informed by the Chairman of Banco di Roma, that the bank has opened an Agency in Tripoli City to perform all commercial and financial operations that were overtaken by the Italian commercial company Arbib, which holdings were bought by Banco di Roma.

Italian Banco di Roma, was founded as a private bank in 1880 with a capital of 6M lira by a group of catholic church related Roman nobles and with support of the Vatican itself. The bank invested in the beginning in the private services sector in Rome, such as water, gas, electricity, mills and transportation utilities. In 1905 its capital reached 30M lira.

IN TRIPOLI, the bank started its activity in this way, as buying another existing holding company, in order not to be in breach to the Ottoman Imperial Decree of 03-12-1887 that obliged all foreign companies wishing to open branches in the Ottoman lands to obtain a permit from Istanbul.
The decree exempted foreign companies, that were already in existence in Ottoman lands at its issuance date, of such compliance.When Rajab Pasha did still reject the acceptance of this maneuver, the bank (through the Italian government) exerted enough pressure on Istanbul until the Grand Master ordered Rajab Pasha to accept the situation as it was – temporarily.

In its first year, the bank opened another agency in Benghazi and several others in Khoms, Zletin, Misurata, Zawara and Derna. The bank had some admirers in the local community –Libyans, Jewish and Maltese- who promoted its activity and preached its virtues and were paid handsomely for their services. The bank offered loans with a very acceptable interest rate, only up to 9 %, and encouraged its customers to obtain loans against land mortgage, and when they failed to pay back, the bank acquired the land. The bank had also a scheme of buying lands through agents for prospective Italian colonials coming to Libya at a later stage.

In the commercial sector, the bank invested in import/export activity, maritime lines and such financial aspects. In the industrial sector, the activity took form of olive presses, a flower mill, an esparto grass press, a soap factory, a machine shop, an ice factory, an establishment for the preparation of ostrich feathers, another for sponges, a quarry---etc.

Dr. Eugene A. Staley, an American international economist, wrote a case study about War and the Private Investor, in which Tripoli was of such Type Cases.

Dr Staley wrote that:

“Another war often ascribed to the direct influence of foreign investments on foreign policy is the Turco-Italian War of 1911-12, which resulted from Italy's seizure of Tripoli. In this instance the Banco di Roma is supposed to have pressed the government into action in order to protect its investments in Tripoli and to enhance the value of its land holdings.”
“The Banco di Roma established un-economic "economic interests" in Tripoli at the urging and under the subsidy of the Italian government, which already knew that some day Italy was to assert itself as a great power by taking that territory from Turkey. When Turkish resistance to this policy of "peaceful penetration" imperiled the bank's enterprises it did add to the general pressure on the Italian government for immediate and decisive action of the sort which had been contemplated anyway for years, and in this sense the bank did become an active instigator as well as a passive instrument of state policy. This is a rather general characteristic of private investments used as tools of diplomacy. They do not remain merely tools, but having been led into rather large risks in support of government policy, they in turn demand that the government support them, which usually means a pressure that is hard to resist in favor of continuation and intensification of a policy of aggressive penetration. This might be called the "balance wheel" effect of private investments used as diplomatic tools; they add momentum to policy. Some details of the Tripoli case are most enlightening and will be briefly recited.

It is easy to establish beyond any doubt whatever that long before the Banco di Roma went to Tripoli, Italian statesmen of nationalist inclinations were definitely planning to take the territory.”

To read more, here is the link:
http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/comment/investor/Staley03.html

THE LEGACY OF IORIO-YOUSEF IN FASCIST EYES

Dante M. Tuninetti was Fascist Party Secretary in Cyrenaica during the twenties of last century. Dante accompanied his friend General Graziani in his Kufra military campaign, probably as a fascist political officer- AN EYE for the Big Chief in Rome.
Later on, Dante left us a book called ‘Il Mistero di Cufra’ الكفرة الغامضة which was like a journal of this Italian accomplishment: the Conquest of the Last Stronghold of Libyan free fighters.

On his way, Dante passed by Jialo in January 1931, when he heard of the story of Yousef El Musulmani and his execution after his capture in the year 1928. He included his interpretation of the story of Iorio-Yousef El Musulmani as follows:

“The story of this soldier is like many of its kind of deserting soldiers from French and Spanish armies in North Africa. Iorio has converted to Islam and chosen the name of Yousef El Musulmani. In a short time, he succeeded by means of his instinctive peasant shrewdness and some superficial civilization (!!!) to gain the compassion of many. Between the Arabs of the south of Benghazi, he was considered an honest Moslem and a brave leader, and he gained a position of power and renown. He married a Bedouin woman according to Arab tradition and had children raised according to Arab and Islamic laws.
Yousef was on his way to Jdabia to join his wife when he passed Jialo and was captured by us. He was condemned to death by our military court as being an Italian soldier deserting the army (at time of war).
In the court, and after hearing his sentence, he behaved manly and proudly and confessed to his crime and refused to request clemency.
When asked, that if he wanted to die as a Christian, there was a priest to attend to his confession, he rejected the suggestion and answered that he preferred to die as a Moslem. He (also added) that he preferred that his children to remain living peacefully between the Arabs.
Before the execution, he requested to write a letter to his brother informing him of the events of his life as his family (in Italy) believed him dead. He requested his brother to raise and support his children if they came to his care.
He then lit a cigarette and walked to the place in the souq square in Jialo where he was to be executed, he stopped in front of the wall and waited the firing squad to fire on him. When he fell down, he did not utter any sound.

In spite of his treachery and the spirit of fatalism he acquired from the Arabs of the hinterland, he died raising his head proudly in front of eternity, he died as an Italian.”

This is a translation of the the story of Iorio-Yousef El Musulmani as told in the Arabic edition of ‘The Mysterious Kufra’ translated by Dr. Wahbi A. Al Bouri الدكتور وهبى أحمد البورى and published in 2005, Pages 75-76.

THE FALL OF THE LAST CITADEL:AL KUFRA الكفرة

Kufra الكفرة was a spiritual and intellectual centre, a carrefour of caravan routes and an important commercial centre in the Grande Sahara.
Kufra was never invaded and never colonized by any foreign power. Kufra was a place coated by spiritualism, awe and invincibility.

ByApril 1930, General Graziani forces accomplished the reconquest of Tripolitania,, Fezzan, mid Libya down to the 29th parallel and the major parts of Cyrenaica with the exception of Omar Mukhtar enclave.
The Libyan free fighters of those conquered areas either died in the Jihad, surrendered or immigrated to neighboring countries, as far as Turkey. Some of them however, regrouped in Kufra and continued resisting the Italians and attacking their bases in the north as far as Jdabia اجدابيا.

In Cyrenaica, the Italians followed a strategy of siege and enclosure. Graziani, who was appointed deputy Governor of Cyrenaica in March, 1930, constructed 300 km of barbed wires on the eastern borders with Egypt cutting thus all routes of supply and reinforcement from the Egyptian side. On the local front, he established concentration camps for more than 126,00 people, in four main locations in isolated and arid areas of Cyrenaica, in order to cut off all food supplies and recruiting fighters for Omar Mukhtar and his companions in the Green Mountain. He actually enforced a major displacement of whole tribes –including old, young and children- from their original lands to big organized prisons surrounded with barbed wires and guards accompanied with fierce dogs. The fatality of the camps population was more that 50 percent.

On 4th July, 1930, the Italians performed air attacks on Tazerbo تازيربو , in the Kufra region, destroying its few mud houses and creating a state of panic between its inhabitants, most of them never have seen aircrafts before. On 26th December, 1930, more air attacks were directed towards the Kufra clustered oases in Al Jouf الجوف and Al Taj التاج.
On 30th December, 1930, the main attacking force of the Kufra campaign left Jdabia اجدابيا heading towards the South. More supporting forces left from Zella زلة and Wao Al Kebir واو الكبير making the whole force combining of:
- More than 4000 soldiers, Italians, Eritrean and local bands (i.e.Libyans).
- 5517 camels to carry provisions, water and ammunition.

- And unrecorded number of automobiles and armored cars.

The Italian army intelligence estimated the Libyan free fighters in Kufra region with a total number not exceeding 600 armed men.
The attacking force arrived in January, 1931, and General Graziani, who was appointed chief commander of the campaign followed by air on 12th January.
The first battle occurred on 19th January, 1931, in Al Hawari الهوارى , and moved to Al Hawareri الهويريرى later on the day. Then General Graziani gave his order to direct nine RO attacking aircrafts to eliminate any escape route of the Libyan fighters, who fought valiantly against any hope of victory or survival.
On 20th February, 1931 The Italians occupied Al Taj التاج , centre of Kufra, and Kufra region fell to the Italians for the first time almost twenty years after their landing in Tripoli, and for the first time in recorded history a foreign invader arrived there.

Orders were given to kill any armed persons on sight, sheiks of the Oases were gathered and hanged afterGraziani’s invented process of flying courts.
The great Kufra library containing tens of thousands of rare books and manuscripts that were collected during a century were scattered , stolen or destroyed. Only 5000 books were salvaged by the civil Italian authority and of those only 2000 books reached Benghazi Awkaf Office أوقاف بنغازى .

The Libyan resistance in the southern Sahara provinces ended and the remainder of Libyan fighters died or fled to neighboring countries.

Italian General-Governer of Libya, Badoglio, flew from Tripoli, and he personally raised the Italian flag bearing -the Cross- on the Senussi Headquarters in Al Taj Zawia.

Ten years Later…..

“Colonel Leclerc, on the orders of De Gaulle in London, was tasked with attacking Italian positions in Libya with the forces at his disposal in Chad which had declared for Free France.
………..
After the success of the Murzuk مرزق raid Leclerc, who had assumed overall command, marshaled his forces to take on Kufra itself.
…………
Despite having superior numbers, Italian resolve faltered. Negotiations to surrender began on 28th February and finally on 1st March,1941, the Free French captured El Tag التاج and with it, the oasis at Kufra.”

ENVER PASHA, his TESKELATI MAHSUSA, and his DIARY

Enver Pasha, or İsmail Enver Bey Ben Ahmed, was born in Istanbul 1882. His father was Turkish and his mother was Albanian. He was graduated from the Military Academy of Istanbul and became an officer in the army.
He was then made a Major in 1906 and served in the Third Army Corps in Salonika, where Enver Bey (later Pasha) with Mustafa Kemal (later Ataturk) were both recruited to become members of the (Committee of Union and Progress or CUP) and active members of the Young Turks movement.
In 1908, he raised with General Hussein Helmi the revolt in the mountainous sector of Macedonia, requesting the implementation of 1876 constitution which was annulled by Sultan Abdulhamid. He entered then Istanbul in a victorious military parade. He became a political figure and The Hero of Liberty"(Hürriyet Kahramanı).

Later he served as military attaché to Berlin, where he remained in the years 1909-1911. In 1909, he went back to Istanbul and assisted with his friend Mahmut Shawkat in the fall of Sultan Abdulhamid. Then he continued his post in Berlin until the Italian invasion of Libya in 1911.

When Italy declared war against Turkey and invaded Libya he quit his post in Berlin and went back to Istanbul and founded, with the aid of some friends, the Secret Private Organization of Teskilati Mahsusa تشكيلاتي مخصوصة which was a secret society beyond the knowledge of Ottoman Government, with the objective of guarding the Foreign Security of the Empire and Promotion of the idea of Pan-Islamism, i.e. against western colonialism and all provincial separatism. Its members were mainly military and with the only secret cooperation of the Ministry of War, at the time.
This secret organization under Enver Pasha decided to form two volunteer groups of Fedayeen Officers منظمة الضباط الفدائيين to be sent into Cyrenaica and Tripolitania to help the Libyans form an effective resistance against the Italian invasion. The first group was to be headed by Enver himself and to enter Libya secretly from the Egyptian borders. The second group was headed by Major Ali Fathi, who was the Turkish Military Attaché in Paris, was to enter Libya secretly from the Tunisian borders, Major Fathi was later to become commander of Gharyan garrison. The two groups are assisted financially through the Ministry of War, however, they have to find local means of support as well.

On the first of December, 1911, Major Enver Pasha, chief of T. M. and Turkish hero of the people, was established and accepted by all of Eastern Libya tribes as an Overall General, for wasn’t he the envoy of the Sultan and his brother in law (Enver was fiancé of Nejia, the Sultan’s niece). He made his headquarters in Ain Bu Mansour Camp near Derna معسكر عين بو منصور .
Reading his diary, gives us the picture of a young man very dedicated to the cause of the Ottoman Empire itself, and a young man very much impressed with the Libyans and their strong belief in their cause and freedom of their country. Enver organized all aspects of a local government, both military and civic and seemed to be a very good organizer. The tribes chiefs accepted him and paid him homage and the Chief of Senusse Movement – Sidi Ahmed Sherif – accepted his leadership, and Enver himself had great respect for ‘ this honorable and dignified Sheik’. As Safia mentioned in her post of Wednesday, March 29, 2006, Enver founded schools and even sent some elite students to be educated in Turkey, some of them came back and joined Ahmed Sherif and some remained in Turkey and fought for the Empire.
When Enver arrived in Cyrenaica he found a local militia of about 900 Mujahid, he succeeded in organizing a trained local army of over sixteen thousand soldiers.
After Turkey had signed the Lausanne Peace Treaty with Italy on 18th October, 1912, Enver, as a military officer, had to leave and go back to Istanbul. He appointed Commander Aziz Almasri عزيز المصرى as chief military commander in Cyrenaica under the overall leadership of Ahmed El Sherif, and Sulliman Al Barouni became the overall military and civic commander in Tripolitania.
The officers of Teskilati Mahsusa تشكيلاتي مخصوصة left their arms, what funds they had with the Libyan Mujahedeen and some of them remained as volunteers.

The following are some excerpts from his last entry of his diary dated on 25th November, 1912:

الخامس و العشرين من نوفمبر 1912

لقد آل ذلك البرعم إلى الذبول بعد أن دبت فيه الحياة ، و من ثم فاننى سأغادر مملكتي برقة بعد أن أصبحت لها مكانة خاصة عندي. فعندما تسلمت مهام عملي هنا مارست سلطات واسعة و هاأنذا الآن عائد إلى اسطنبول لأعمل و كأنني ملازم أول. و طبقا للبرقية الواردة إلينا من اسطنبول فان من سيبقى هنا سيبقى على مسؤوليته.
أما من جانبي على الأقل فقد مهدت السبيل لضمان استمرارية النضال. و قد يفسر خصومي هذا القرار بطريقتهم الخاصة فيجدون فيه فرصة سانحة للافتراء على و تشويه سمعتي و لكنى سوف لن أهتم بذلك فكل همي خدمة بلادي في أي مكان تبدو الحاجة فيه إلى أكثر مساسا .
و في عشية مغادرتي وصل من بنغازي التلاميذ الذين نويت إرسالهم إلى المدارس التركية في اسطنبول و قد أدوا أمامي النشيد الوطني . و عند سماعي لأنغامهم و هم ينشدون دار في خلدي مدى بشاعة أن نسلم هذه الأرض و أهلها العظام ، و لم أتمالك نفسي إزاء هذا الموقف فاغرورقت عيناي بالدموع . لقد كان كل شي هنا على وشك التفتق و الازدهار، و ما أنجزناه في غضون عام واحد من العمل الدءوب أضحى يبشر بالآمال الكبار.
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أما الإدارة المدنية فقد نظمت بأسلوب بسيط جدا، فالبلاد بأسرها كانت مقسمة من قبل إلى مناطق حسب وجود الزوايا فيها. لقد ألزم مشائخ الزوايا، و هم أكثر الناس فطنة و تأثيرا في مناطقهم ، ألزموا عند مغادرتي بإدارة شئون الحكومة في مجتمعاتهم.
أما فيما يخص الجيش النظامي ، فأنه يتألف من ثلاثة ألوية مشاة ، و كل لواء من ثلاث كتائب و كل كتيبة من ثلاث سرايا و كل سرية من مائة و خمسون جنديا ، و خمس عشرة امرأة كمساعدات في المعسكر. و بالإضافة إلى ذلك يوجد ثلاث سرايا للمدفعية مزودة باثني عشر مدفعا ، و ثلاث بطاريات مدفعية مزودة كل منها بأربعة مدافع.
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لقد أنشأت عشر مدارس ابتدائية بها حوالي ألف تلميذ و مدرستين للبنات يهما مائة و خمسين تلميذة. و طبقا للاتفاقية مع اسطنبول فقد بعثت بمائتي تلميذ إلى المدارس التركية معظمهم من أبناء الشيوخ و كان من بينهم ثلاثون تلميذا أرسلوا إلى المدرسة العسكرية و عشرون تلميذا للمشاة و ستة تلاميذ لسلاح المدفعية و أربعة تلاميذ لسلاح الفرسان و خمسة تلاميذ بعثوا إلى المدرسة الطبية و ستة إلى مدرسة البيطرة و أربعة تلاميذ لمدرسة الصيدلة و ستون تلميذا إلى مدرسة صف الضباط و خمسة عشر تلميذا لمعاهد المعلمين و البقية أرسلوا إلى مصانع الأسلحة و مؤسسات صناعية أخرى.
و قبيل رحيلي بأيام قلائل تم تحويل قلعة القيقب الضخمة إلى مدرسة. فهذه القلعة يمكن أن تستخدم كمدرسة عادية ، و هي ملحقة بمدرسة مهنية و تجارية ، يمكنها أن تعلم مهارات في شعب تجارية و زراعية و تتبعها مزرعة صغيرة و بها ضابط يقوم بمهام المدير. أما عن النظام المستعمل في المدرسة فانه ذو طبيعة عسكرية. فلكل تلميذ بندقية يتدرب عليها لمدة ساعتين يوميا. و يستمر الطلاب في هذه المدرسة لمدة سنتين يتخرجون بعدها كمدرسين في المدارس المتجولة بين القبائل.
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اننى في هذه اللحظات في غاية السعادة لان سيدي أحمد الشريف ، شيخ السنوسية الكبير ظل وفيا لإيمانه الراسخ حتى أخر لحظة. فقد رفض بكل فخر و اعتزاز هدايا ملك ايطاليا كما رفض الاقتراح الايطالي الداعي إلى إنشاء زاوية كبيرة له في بنغازي ، انه كان و لا يزال حقا ذلك الرجل صاحب القلب الكبير.

No doubt that what Anwar Pasha did in helping the Libyan resistance with his colleagues at our time of need was very great. However, Enver was a patriot and his aim was mainly to salvage and protect his beloved Ottoman Empire. But, alas, the disease was terminal and incurable. Centuries of ignorance, neglect and oppression have passed and the only treatment was probably surgical. The flame that founded the Ottoman Empire was distinguished decades ago and the Empire went into decline and corruption until it became the Sick Man of Europe. On the other side, the World has entered into a new phase and the Super Western Colonial Powers were as greedy and hungry as vultures around an almost dead lion.
What Enver Pasha tried to accomplish was great, but it should have been done ages ago. The relationship between the Turk and the Arab was a relationship of an absolute ruler and an obedient subject and at times I could say that it was between a Master and a Slave, and it took the Western invasion of the provinces of the Empire to realize that they were actually partners and they should have behaved as such.

Later on Enver Pasha staged a coup in Istanbul and ….. "After these political and military achievements, Enver introduced a military dictatorship that came to be called the Three Pashas (Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Djemal Pasha). In 1914, he became Minister of War in the cabinet of Sait Halim Pasha, and married the daughter of Prince Süleyman, thus entering the royal family. His power grew steadily while Europe marched toward total war."

However, Turkey was defeated in WW1, Enver went down in disgrace and Mustafa Kemal Ataturk rose to power.

OSMAN EFFENDI, AN ENGLISH FREE FIGHTER IN DERNA

Safia Speaks of (http://safiaaoude.blogspot.com/) wrote a comment on my post of Yousef Al Musulmani that she knew about many young Westerners joining the Libyans in their plight and inquiring if I knew “…anything about the British soldier Stuart Smallwood, who became a Muslim and joined the Ottoman Turks in their fight against the Italian invaders in Libya in 1912”
At the time, the answer was no, I didn’t. I remembered that there was a film made in the sixties, featuring a story of a British who joined the Libyans and fought with them, and married a Bedouin girl. I have seen the film, starring John Wayne and Sophia Loren, and I think it was called the Black Tent, and at the time I thought it was pure fiction.
However, I wanted to know if there was any trace of this story anywhere. I started with the easiest available on the net – Google search engine, and there again I find my second option is back to a post that Safia Speaks published on Wednesday, March 29, 2006, featuring a review of a diary of the Turkish-Italian war in Libya between October 1911 and November 1912 which was written by Enver Pasha. It seemed that this Enver Pasha told of the story of the British soldier that fought with the Libyans in his diary.
My first option of my search (and many other results after the second) was a Turkish site. I looked at this site, and I don’t speak Turkish, but I figured out that this site actually told the story of Enver Pasha. Frankly, I became more interested in the story of Enver himself.
I made a printout of the main text and asked my good Turkish friend Erkan to translate the text for me into English. Arkan looked up the site himself and became interested and promised me to make the translation in few days, which I’m still waiting for.
But who was this Enver Pasha? Then, I remembered of course, it’s the difference in pronunciation. THIS IS MAJOR ANWAR BEC المقدم أنور بك who was commander of the armed Turkish-Libyan forces in Derna with his deputy MUSTAFA KAMAL المقدم مصطفى كمال to become later on the Great MUSTAFA KAMAL ATTATURK. AND THEN, it hit me that YES, I KNEW about the English lieutenant John Smallwood, Alias Osman Effendi, who perished in the valleys of Derna on a mission of reconnaissance near the Italian fortifications in Derna.

But let’s read a witness’s account of this man and who he was..…

Georges Remond, French Journalist, arrived in Derna on 14th April, 1912 and stayed for about three weeks, wrote his observations about Ain Mansour Camp معسكر عين منصور , which included the story of JOHN SMALLWOOD…….

“On the 8th of May, the English lieutenant John Smallwood disappeared. (This gentleman) who already became a Moslem and had a new name for himself as ‘Osman Effendi’, was definitely assassinated by the Italians. He was on a mission of reconnaissance, and some Libyans were sent to trace him and came back saying that they found traces of blood fifty meters near the Italian fortifications.

This Moslem Englishman was quite a unique character. He was blond, very thin, his nose was fractured during a boxing match and his body was covered with tattoos. He was extremely brave and looked at life as a sport game. He insisted everyday to show his daring and bravery. He would go at times during perfect daylight to prepare his tea in front of the Italian lines, or sneak under darkness to the town of Derna and the Italian fortifications.
The last time he left the camp in the company of a Bedouin, he was intending to take some photographs near the Italian fortification in Derna under moon light, and he promised to give me these photos to publish in my journal, but he never came back. I can imagine that he dared to come very close to the Italian lines, he was gunned down with his Libyan companion, that they tried to crawl back to the camp and probably fell down in a ravine. The Italians would have found their bodies the following day and they were transported back to Derna. At least these are the interpretations made by the tracer people who were sent to find out their fate.

In the evening, people of the Ain Mansour Camp gathered around a poet from the tribe of Brassa قبيلة البراعصة who recited a poem of praise in the memory of this Moslem Englishman and his Libyan companion who died for the cause.”

Regarding Anwar Pasha and his deeds in Cyrenaica, that’s another story…...

A PORTRAIT OF A FIGHTER WOMAN

THE LADY OF AL AZIZIA
She was called Slema Bent Maghawess سليمة بنت مقوس . A woman from the tribe of A Nnawael النوايل . She became famous in February, 1912 for participating in all the battles against the Italians in Tripoli region since the invasion. She was injured when a bullet hit her chest. She was transported to her home for treatment and rest. After two weeks she was back to take her position between the Mujahedeen. Paul Tristan, correspondent of the French newspaper ‘Le Petit Marseillais’ of the city of Marseille became fond of her and gave her a present: A Sword. Georges Remond, correspondent of the Parisian ‘L’Illustration’ took a picture of her holding her sword as you see below. Georges Remond wrote also that twelve fighting women joined her, in the Al Azizia Mujahedeen camp, later on arriving from Fezzan.

GEORGES REMOND WROTE FROM YEFREN.....

“We crossed Jabal Nafussa at Teji تيجى, Al Joush الجوش, Shakshouk شكشوك, Jadu جادو, Zentan الزنتان and on 28/01/1912 we arrived in Yefren. I was met by Major Yousef Jamal, Commander of Turkish garrison in the region, who spoke very well French. He welcomed me in perfect French and gave his orders for our lodging to be prepared. He then invited us to a dinner of Turkish dish of lamb and meat sauce.
The following day he accompanied me in a tour around Yefren. We visited Wadi Al Rummia, a valley of about 3 km long, 1 ½ km wide and 300-400 meters deep. At the bottom of the valley were seen some roman ruins. Major Y. Jamal, who was present in Tripoli city when the Italians invaded, told me his story:
‘The position of the Turks was very difficult during the first two weeks. The Libyans accused us of selling their country cheap to the Italians and refused to stand up with us or provide us with supplies or camels. But as soon as the Turkish officers and soldiers succeeded in organizing few skirmishes against the Italian enemy, the Libyan realized that we didn’t betray their cause and changed heart. The Libyan leader of the peoples of Jabal Nafussa –Sulliman Al Barouni-, the Leader of Tripoli city –Mohamed Farhat Alzawi- (Gheriani:Both of them were members in the Turkish Parliament) and other religious leaders and tribal chiefs ignited the call for Jihad against the Italian enemy. The spirit for resistance was widespread and recruits came upon us from everywhere, Beduins from far lands, people of mountains and the plains, from the oasis of distant Fezzan and from far away Sudan.
We started achieving few victories which paralyzed the Italians and frozen them within the confines of the city of Tripoli. They couldn’t venture outside the limits of the city.
We established our headquarters then in Souk Al Juma, a village only 4 km east of the city. We resisted the Italians advance over there for 40 days. However, the Italians had an unlimited line of supply, of men and modern arms. The sea to the north was open to them and to Italy, while our line of supply was only what the Libyan could gather and spare from their homes and villages, thus very limited (Gheriani: from Turkey only few men -mosly volunteers- and smuggled arms, and some doctors and male nurses arrived).
So finally, we were forced to retreat to the interior, to Al Azizia – 40 km south of Tripoli.
However, the unity between Libyans and Turks was forged by blood. The Mujahedeen kept arriving in great numbers. After being organized, trained and disciplined by the Turkish officers they became a force to be reckoned with for they didn’t fear death.
On the other side, the invading Italians used treachery, wile and deceit. They bought through their agents few Libyans in the city of Tripoli to become their stooges and propaganda mouths presenting the Italians as progressive, democratic and superior force to the Turks.
(Gheriani: Here there are thirteen first names mentioned in the narration. The translator –Dr. Mohamed El Wafi- declined to mention their last names for fear that the author, being a foreigner might have misspelled them, or that possible malice of the Turkish officer against some Libyan families made him name them as traitors. We have to remember that the descendants of some of these people may still live. I have read in another source that one of those collaborators was preaching the Italians name while his son was fighting against them in Al Azizia)
These traitors were given large amount of money by the Italians to promote a campaign of propaganda in favor of the Italians between their fellow Libyan in order to stop the resistance and raise the white flag.
In brief, the situation of the people of Tripolitania is desperate, while on the other side, the Italian army and navy were in perfect shape of preparedness and organization.’ (Here ends the narration of Major Y.J.)

Then how against all these obstacles and with so few arms, the resistance continued like a miracle until now. How could this resistance achieve some victories at all.
How could it become a formidable danger threatening the Italian invasion?
This was what even the Mujahedeen themselves, who made these victories, found hard to explain.
This would be the objective of my trip across Libya – to find out ,to describe and try to explain to my readers.
Finally, we bid our farewell to the Turkish officers and Libyan notables out side of Yefren on 29/01/1912 and hit the road toward Gharyan.”

GEORGES REMOND CROSSED THE BORDERS OF TRIPOLITANIA

G. R. wrote:
“I crossed the Libyan borders on horseback from Tunisia at Zeheba ذهيبة check point on 17/01/1912. I was accompanied by my Algerian translator Al Allami Alleash العلمى عليش and an Algerian Sebahi horseman من فرسان السباهى assigned to me as a guardian until I would arrive safely at the town of Nalut, by 1st Lieutenant Buffet and his deputy Lieutenant Billier – from the French Army stationed at the borders.
I arrived Yesterday afternoon in Nalut (the first western town of Jebel Naffusa). The town consisted of a few white houses, another type of homes dug in the earth and then some fortified village built on the sides of a very deep valley. In the middle there was a formidable castle –Quasar. Its walls were built from huge rocks and its summit was shining under the sun glare. In the sunset, the view seemed to my as coming out of legends.
The following morning I walked with my companions in the lanes of Nalut and entered its Quasar through a low doomed arch. I saw the faces of men covered by white robes and sitting in groups In the shadows. The width of those lanes was no more than one meter, may be even less. On both sides, there were stairs leading up to rooms like birds nests or more like holes engraved in the rocks. People here used these spectacular rooms as homes (in times of unrest) or stores for their harvest. Above my head I saw some beams of wood between the walls to prevent them of crumbling down the lanes. Then we walked out to the sunshine where we came upon a wide valley descending deeply between two hard mountains.
Nalut population was estimated at 4000 citizens of whom only 1000 remained. Men have gone to join the war at the battle fields in Azizia and near the coast against the Italian invader. The people I met offered me their best hospitality, and at noon we were invited to eat the traditional Bazin which consisted of a solid pudding of barley flower, of hot spicy sauce and big chunks of lamb meat. The meal was presented to us together in a big dish made of wood, its cover made beautifully of colored palm tree leaves. We ate together using our fingers (Bazin has to be eaten by fingers!) and it was very delicious.
After lunch, I talked with a camel owner negotiating hiring his camel. I discussed my trip with the local Turkish and Libyan authorities presented by the Police Chief, Deputy of Local Governor and one of the Telegraph employees. I took their advices about the rout of my journey which I will continue tomorrow.
After two days, I was ready to leave Nalut on the road to Gharyan. I was told the caravan I would join includes the camel carrying presents and clothes sent from Italian families in Italy to Italian prisoners of war held captive in Gharyan – of which I was asked to take care of their delivery at their destination before entering Libya.”

The interior of the old Quasar of Nalut

GHARYAN ..... NINETY FOUR YEARS AGO

Armies of Mujahedeen gathering in the advanced positions
in the district of Ben Gasheer 20 km from the city of Tripoli.

Major Fathi, Commander of the Army, walking with some
Gharyan notables.

Georges Remond wrote:

“Upon my arrival to Gharyan on the 2nd of February 1912, I was received by Major Fathi Bey, who used to occupy the post of Military Attaché at the Othman Embassy in Paris. Since the beginning of this war Major Fathi proved to be a good administrator, organizer and a brave commander. He offered me his friendship and hospitality. As a matter of fact, all Turkish officers I met offered me their best hospitality, and here in Gharyan it was with a special flavor.
I have to mention that I was asked before entering the Libyan frontiers –from the Tunisian borders- to deliver a load carried by a camel which contained clothes, presents and food parcels sent from Italian families to the Italian prisoners of war in the city of Gharyan. Colonel Nashaat Bey, General Commander of Othman Armed Forces in Tripolitania, already ordered personally for those parcels to arrive safely to their destination and hired a camel which carried the parcels at the expense of the Turkish government.
Later on I met the Italian POW and I was granted the freedom to speak freely with them in Italian. My first question was, “Have you been well treated?”
They answered, “Yes..Also the doctors here are continuing in observing and treating our wounds and maladies. When we were captured we feared the worst, but the Turkish doctors and officers, and the Libyans as well, treated us from the beginning with a good, humane and manly manner”
I made a thorough investigation to find out if the Italians were telling the truth or were afraid of their captors but I became convinced that they were telling the truth and there was no pressure or threats making them telling lies in order to protect themselves.
I met also both of Dr. Yousef and Dr. Refaat, who were Turkish and trained in Paris hospitals, the first had his medical training in Hopital Cochin and the second in Hopital Val de Grace.
The POW told me that they had become accustomed to eating the traditional Gharyan dishes like ‘Zammita’ and the spicy “Bazin”, and asked me to inform their families in Italy through what I would write in my magazine, that they are treated fairly and both Libyans and Turks don’t treat their POW badly. I took finally my leave and wished them safe return to their country and that peace may come to the land.
It was believed in the beginning of the Italian invasion last year that the Libyan resistance will retreat to the mountains and leave the plains to the invaders. However, the Italians failed to advance into the interior until now, and the Turk-Libyan forces are still camping in Azizia, only 40 km from the city of Tripoli, and attacking the Italian garrisons on the coast.
When descending from Gharyan at Abughilan, the Libyans who accompanied me told me that the Holy Man –Sidi Abdussalam Lassmar- in his predictions told that: ‘The People of Tripoli will be defeated in the beginning, then they will conquer their enemies in the valley of Abughilan itself, and then the dawn of Islam will rise again upon this land’

On the 5th of February, 1912, I arrived at Azizia where there were Turkish Forces and Libyan volunteers –Mujahedeen- gathering in full force.”

Georges Remond was a French reporter de guerre sent by his Parisian weekly ‘L’Illustration’ from 17/01/1912 to 30/06/1912 to cover the war events –from the Libyan side- after the Italian invasion.
He collected then his writings about his travels in a book he called:
“Aux Camps Turco Arabes’
Notes de Route et de Guerre en Cyrénaïque et en Tripolitaine---
The book was translated to Arabic by Dr. M. El Wafi –Fateh University- in 1972.